November 2013

Stages of the New Product Development (NPD) Process

Tuesday, 26 November 2013

New-Product Development Process:

New product development is a process which is designed to develop, test and consider the viability of products which are new to the market in order to ensure the Growth or survival of the organization.

Every entrepreneur knows that productivity is one of the key ingredients for successful product development. New product development (NPD) is the complete process of bringing a new product to market. A product is a set of benefits offered for exchange and can be tangible (that is, something physical you can touch) or intangible (like a service, experience, or belief).

Stages of New Product Development:
New product development as the first stage in generating and commercializing new product within the overall strategic process of product life cycle management used to maintain or grow their market share.

Idea Generation
Idea Screening
Concept Development and Testing
Business Analysis
Market Testing
Technical Implementation
Commercialization
New Product Pricing
Stages of the New Product Development Process

A short description of these stages are point out below……..
1. Idea Generation

Idea Generation is often called the “NPD” of the NPD process. Idea generation is continuous, systematic search for new product opportunities. It involves delineating sources of new ideas and methods for generating them.

Ideas for new products can be obtained from basic research using a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities & Threats). Market and consumer trends, company’s R&D department, competitors, focus groups, employees, salespeople, corporate spies, trade shows, or ethnographic discovery methods (searching for user patterns and habits) may also be used to get an insight into new product lines or product features.

Lots of ideas are generated about the new product. Out of these ideas many are implemented. The ideas are generated in many forms. Many reasons are responsible for generation of an idea.

Idea Generation or Brainstorming of new product, service, or store concepts - idea generation techniques can begin when you have done your OPPORTUNITY ANALYSIS to support your ideas in the Idea Screening Phase (shown in the next development step).

2. Idea Screening
The object is to eliminate unsound concepts prior to devoting resources to them.

The screeners should ask several questions:
Will the customer in the target market benefit from the product?
What is the size and growth forecasts of the market segment / target market?
What is the current or expected competitive pressure for the product idea?
What are the industry sales and market trends the product idea is based on?
Is it technically feasible to manufacture the product?
Will the product be profitable when manufactured and delivered to the customer at the target price?

3. Concept Development and Testing
Concept testing present the consumer with a proposed product and measure attitudes and intention at this early stage of development.

Develop the marketing and engineering details
Investigate intellectual property issues and search patent databases
Who is the target market and who is the decision maker in the purchasing process?
What product features must the product incorporate?
What benefits will the product provide?
How will consumers react to the product?
How will the product be produced most cost effectively?
Prove feasibility through virtual computer aided rendering and rapid prototyping
What will it cost to produce it?
Testing the Concept by asking a number of prospective customers what they think of the idea - usually via Choice Modelling.

4. Business Analysis
Includes development of three part strategy plan

Describe the market’s size, structure, and behaviour, the planned product positioning, and the sales, market share, and profit goals for first few years.
Outlines the planned price, distribution strategy, and marketing budget for the first year.
Describes thelong-run sales and profit goals and marketing-mix strategy over time.

5. Beta Testing and Market Testing

Test marketing involves placing a product for sale in one or more selected areas and observing its actual performance under the proposed marketing plan
Produce a physical prototype or mock-up
Test the product (and its packaging) in typical usage situations
Conduct focus group customer interviews or introduce at trade show
Make adjustments where necessary
Produce an initial run of the product and sell it in a test market area to determine customer acceptance

6. Technical Implementation

New program initiation
Finalize Quality management system
Resource estimation
Requirement publication
Publish technical communications such as data sheets
Engineering operations planning
Department scheduling
Supplier collaboration
Logistics plan
Resource plan publication
Program review and monitoring
Contingencies - what-if planning

7. Commercialization

Launch the product
Produce and place advertisements and other promotions
Fill the distribution pipeline with product
Critical path analysis is most useful at this stage

8. New Product Pricing

Impact of new product on the entire product portfolio
Value Analysis (internal & external)
Competition and alternative competitive technologies
Differing value segments (price, value and need)
Product Costs (fixed & variable)
Forecast of unit volumes, revenue, and profit

Wet Transfer Printing Method | Steps of Wet Transfer Printing Process

Saturday, 23 November 2013

Wet Transfer Printing Process :

In this water soluble dyes printed on paper migrate to fabric having fixing chemicals.The principle behind wet transfer processes is the use of water as the medium through which dye diffuses in passing from the paper to the fabric. Thus it resembles sublimation transfer printing in that it is a diffusion-controlled system, but since water is used instead of vapor it is not restricted to the use of dyes that can sublime. The first commercial exploitation of this approach dates from the introduction of the Fastran process in 1971. This involves padding wool garments with stabilised thickeners to obtain an expression of the order of 1:1 and then bringing the wet garment into contact with a transfer paper printed with acid or reactive dyes. The composite is then heated in a press for several minutes during which time the dye migrates to the fabric and becomes attached in the usual manner. The method is not highly productive but is quite suited for the printing of high-value articles such as knitted woollen garments, especially when novel design effects are obtained at the same time.

Several attempts have been made to devise continuous wet transfer systems. The DewPrint machine introduced in the late 1970s (shown schematically in Figure) offered an ingenious solution to the problems posed .

Wet transfer-printing machine (DewPrint)

The major difficulty to be overcome in a system of this kind is how to maintain the contact pressure holding the paper to the fabric continuously at the required level over a period of time. This cannot be achieved simply by using a stretched blanket as in sublimation transfer. Consequently the DewPrint machine was fitted with a series of pressure rollers around the heated transfer cylinder, which exert a steadily increasing pressure up to but not exceeding the pressure of the mangle used initially to impregnate the fabric. The major drawback of this solution to the problems was the capital cost involved, which seriously affected adoption of the approach.

Continuous wet transfer continues to be of interest, and new equipment has been recently introduced by Küsters in association with the Cotton Art process developed by Dansk Tranfertryk for transfer printing reactive dyes using their specially developed transfer paper .

Steps of Wet Transfer Printing Process:
A wet transfer printing process for fabrics is known which comprises the following three stages.

Printing the required design on a selected grade of paper, using specially chosen dyes dispersed in a suitable paper printing medium.
Impregnating the fabric (nylon, wool, acrylic or the like) with an aqueous solution which may, for example, contain a dye fixation catalyst and a thickener, the latter to act as a dye migration controller and film-stabiliser.
Bringing the printed paper and the impregnated fabric into close conformity, by applying pressure, and maintaining this conformity under pressure for a period which may vary from a few seconds to several minutes, while maintaining the paper and fabric in a moist condition at a temperature of at least 100 on the printed paper are almost completely transferred to the fabric and, provided sufficient contact time is allowed, are fixed in the same operation.

Application Methods of Reactive Dyeing

Friday, 22 November 2013

Application Methods of Reactive Dyeing

Amjad Farooq

Reactive Dye:
In a reactive dye a chromophore contains a substituent that is activated and allowed to directly react to the surface of the substrate. Reactive dyes have good fastness properties owing to the bonding that occurs during dyeing. Reactive dyes are most commonly used in dyeing of cellulose like cotton or flax, but also wool is dyeable with reactive dyes.

Dyeing Process of Reactive Dye:

Pad batch.
Continuous
Semi-continuous.

The following chart gives a comparison between batch dyeing and continuous dyeing:

Batch Dyeing:
Batch Dyeing Process is the most popular and common method used for dyeing of textile materials. Batch dyeing is also sometimes referred to as Exhaust dyeing.

Variable factors in reactive dyeing.
1. Temperature.:
A higher temperature in dyeing with reactive dyes results in,Higher rate of dyeing,Lower colour yield. Better dye penetration,Rapid diffusion and Lower substantivity.

2. pH:
pH influences the primary site of reaction on the fabric,Best dyeing rate is achieved at pH of 11-12. Further increase in pH will reduce the reaction rate as well as the efficiency of fixation.

3. Electrolyte:
Electrolyte increases the rate & extent of exhaustion,Electrolyte increases the dye aggregation. Electrolyte decreases the diffusion and Mostly used KCl, Na2SO4, NaCl.

4. Liquor to material ratio:
Advantages of Lower liquor ratio,Higher colour strength and Higher exhaustion.

5. Surfactants and other chemicals being added:
Some anions may enhance the colour yield,Some non-anions decrease the exhaustion and Some non-anions may slow down the dye hydrolysis

Washing off after dyeing:
Effective washing, to remove un-reacted dye,If un-reacted dye not removed it gives false indication of low wash fastness,Rinse 2-3 times with fresh water at 50-60 C,Wash with soap for 10-15 minutes using easily rinseable detergents.Rinse with cold water until rinsed water is colourless.

Three stages:

Exhaustion from aqeous water bath containing electrolyte under neutral conditions.
Addition of alkali to promote further uptake and dye fiber reaction at optimal pH and temperature.
Rinsing and soaping at boil to remove electrolyte, alkali and un-reacted dye.

Reactive groups	Dyeing temp.	Common salt g/L	Soda ash g/L
Dichlorotriazine	30	25-55	2-15
Monochloro-triazine	80-85	30-90	10-20
Vinuyl sulphone	70-80	30-80	10-20
Bifunctional	80-85	30-60	10-20

There are three general types of batch dyeing machines. The first type is the one where there is circulation of fabric. Second type is the one where the dyebath gets circulated while the material that is being dyed remains stationary, and finally the third type where both the bath and material to be dyed gets circulated. Examples of dyeing machines that utilizes batch dyeing process are Beck, Jet, Jigs, Beam Package dyeing machines etc.

After treatment:

In the dyeing of deep shades or inefficient washing eqipment there may be incomplete removal of unfixed dye.
After treatment with cationic dye fixing agent.
Insolublises the unfixed dye.
Improves wash fastness.
Treated with 5-10 g/L cationic dye fixing agent at 50-60º C for 10-30 mints.
Treatment with dye fixing agent is not substitute of wash off process.

Some important parameters to be considered in Exhaust dyeing::

Liquor Ratio (textile that is dyed/water used in dyeing bath)
Dyeing Method (temperature/time curves; Double bath or single bath process in case of fibre mixtures)
Nature of Dyestuff, auxiliaries
Degree of exhaustion degree of dyestuffs
Number of rinsing bathes and nature of after treatments required

Continuous Dyeing:

The working of a continuous dyeing process is described here.
The textile substrates are feeded continuously into a dye range. The speeds can vary between 50 to 250 meters per minute. According to Industry estimates Continuous dyeing is a popular dyeing method and accounts for around 60% of total yardage of the products that are dyed.
High productivity.
Dye fixation achieved in few seconds to minutes
High capital cost.

A Continuous dyeing process typically consists the following. Dye application, dye fixation with heat or chemicals and finally washing. Continuous dyeing has been found to be most suitable for woven fabrics. Mostly continuous dye ranges are designed for dyeing blends of polyester and cotton. The step of padding plays a key role in the operation of continuous dyeing. Sometimes Nylon carpets are also dyed in continuous processes, but the design ranges for them is unlike that for flat fabrics. Warps are also dyed in continuous process. Very good examples of such warp dyeing are long chain warp dyeing and slasher dyeing using indigo.

continuous dye range has been found useful and economically sustainable for dyeing long runs of a given shade. One important factor that separates continuous dyeing from batch dyeing is the tolerance factor for color variation. That is more for continuous dyeing as compared to batch dyeing. This is so because of two reasons a) the speed of the process. b) presence of a large number of process variables which affects dye application. The process that is illustrated below is designed for dyeing of blended fabric of polyester and cotton.

Semi-continuous Dyeing:

Known as the pad batch dyeing.
Able to dye fabric length of 1000-2000m at economic cost.

In the process of semi-continuous dyeing that consists of pad-batch, pad-jig, pad-roll the fabric is first impregnated with the dye-liquor in, what is called a padding machine. Then it is subjected to batch wise treatment in a jigger. It could also be stored with a slow rotation for many hours. In the pad-batch this treatment is done at room temperature while in pad-roll it is done at increased temperature by employing a heating chamber. This helps in fixation of the dyes on to the fibre. After this fixation process, the material in full width is thoroughly cleansed and rinsed in continuous washing machines. There is only one point of difference between Continuous and semi-continuous dyeing process is that in semi-continuous dyeing, the dye is applied continuously by a padding. The fixation and washing remaining discontinuous. Liquor Ratio in semi-continuous dyeing is not of much importance and is not taken as a parameter. One of the widely used techniques for semi-continuous dyeing process is the Pad Batch Dyeing a schematic diagram is given here for the semi-continuous dyeing process.

The following table shows some of the important machineries for semi-continuous and continuous dyeing processes.

References:

A Review of Textile Dyeing Processes
http://www.academia.edu/1517542/Introduction_to_Textile_Dyeing
http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2012/01/different-methods-of-reactive-dye.html

Factors Influencing Productivity in Textile Industry

Thursday, 21 November 2013

Productivity:

Productivity refers to the physical relation between the quality produced (output) and the quantity of resource used in the course of production (input)

Productivity (P) = Output (O) / Input (I)

Output implies production while input means land, labour, capital, management etc. Productivity measures the efficiency of the production system. Higher productivity means producing more from a given amount of input or producing a given amount with minimum level of inputs.

Productivity in Apparel Industry

In other words the more the output from one worker or one machine (or a piece of equipment) per day per shift, the higher is the productivity. Higher productivity is not to be taken in sense of higher workloads or faster machines alone but it is always elimination of waste of all type of labor (time and skill) machine time, capital, and material management etc.

Productivity = Output per unit of input

Productivity and production are two different terms. Productivity is a relative term indicating the ratio between total output and the total inputs used therein on the other hand production is an absolute concept, which refers to the volume of output. The volume of production may increase but productivity may decline due to inefficient use of resource. Efficient use of input may increase productivity but the volume of production may not increase. Production refers to the end result of production system whereas productivity reflects its efficiency.

Factors Influencing Productivity:
Productivity is an economics term which refers to the ratio of product to what is required to produce the product in textile industry. There are many factors which can influence productivity in textile industry. Though there are both positive and negative influencing factors, it is more common to hear about and know those factors which adversely affect production.

Factors influencing productivity can be classified broadly into two categories: (A) controllable (or internal) factors and (B) un-controllable (or external) factors.

(A) CONTROLLABLE (OR INTERNAL) FACTORS
1. Product factor: In terms of productivity means the extent to which the product meets output requirements product is judged by its usefulness. The cost benefit factor of a product can be enhanced by increasing the benefit at the same cost or by reducing cost for the same benefit.

2. Plant and equipment: These play a prominent role in enhancing the productivity. The increased availability of the plant through proper maintenance and reduction of idle time increases the productivity. Productivity can be increased by paying proper attention to utilisation, age, modernisation, cost, investments etc.

3. Technology: Innovative and latest technology improves productivity to a greater extent. Automation and information technology helps to achieve improvements in material handling, storage, communication system and quality control. The various aspects of technology factors to be considered are:

Size and capacity of the plant,
Timely supply and quality of inputs,
Production planning and control,
Repairs and maintenance,
Waste reduction, and
Efficient material handling system.

4. Material and energy: Efforts to reduce materials and energy consumption brings about considerable improvement in productivity.

Selection of quality material and right material.
Control of wastage and scrap.
Effective stock control.
Development of sources of supply.
Optimum energy utilisation and energy savings.

5. Human factors: Productivity is basically dependent upon human competence and skill. Ability to work effectively is governed by various factors such as education, training, experience aptitude etc., of the employees. Motivation of employees will influence productivity.

6. Work methods: Improving the ways in which the work is done (methods) improves productivity, work study and industrial engineering techniques and training are the areas which improve the work methods, which in term enhances the productivity.

7. Management style: This influence the organizational design, communication in organization, policy and procedures. A flexible and dynamic management style is a better approach to achieve higher productivity.

(B) UNCONTROLLABLE (OR EXTERNAL) FACTORS

1. Structural adjustments: Structural adjustments include both economic and social changes. Economic changes that influence significantly are:

Shift in employment from agriculture to manufacturing industry,
Import of technology, and
Industrial competitiveness.

Social changes such as women’s participation in the labour force, education, cultural values, attitudes are some of the factors that play a significant role in the improvement of productivity.

2. Natural resources: Manpower, land and raw materials are vital to the productivity improvement.

3. Government and infrastructure: Government policies and programmes are significant to productivity practices of government agencies, transport and communication power, fiscal policies (interest rates, taxes) influence productivity to the greater extent.

Softening Finishes in Textile | Mechanisms of the Softening Effect on Fabric

Wednesday, 20 November 2013

Textile Finishing

Often fibers in textile substrates are deficient in one or more properties or improved properties are desired for the substrate. Textile finishing provides a method whereby deficiencies in the textile can be corrected or specific properties can be introduced. Physical finishing techniques (dry finishing processes) or chemical finishing methods (wet finishing) are used. Physical finishing is usually carried out on the yarn or formed textile substrate, whereas chemical finishes can be added to the spinning bath prior to fiber formation for man-made fibers or applied to individual fibers, yarns, or completed textile structures.

Softening Finishes

Softening Finishes in Textile
Softening finishes are among the most important of textile chemical after treatments. With chemical softeners, textiles can achieve an agreeable, soft hand (supple, pliant, sleek and fluffy), some smoothness, more flexibility and better drape and pliability. The hand of a fabric is a subjective sensation felt by the skin when a textile fabric is touched with the finger tips and gently compressed. The perceived softness of a textile is the combination of several measurable physical phenomena such as elasticity, compressibility and smoothness.

Softener

During preparation, textiles can become embrittled because natural oils and waxes or fiber preparations are removed. Finishing with softeners can overcome this deficiency and even improve on the original suppleness. Other properties improved by softeners include the feeling of added fullness, antistatic properties and sewability.

Disadvantages sometimes seen with chemical softeners include reduced crock-fastness, yellowing of white goods, changes in hue of dyed goods and fabric structure slippage.

Mechanisms of the Softening Effect
Softeners provide their main effects on the surface of the fibres. Small softener molecules, in addition, penetrate the fibre and provide an internal plasticisation of the fibre forming polymer by reducing of the glass transition temperature Tg. The physical arrangement of the usual softener molecules on the fiber surface is important and shown in Fig. It depends on the ionic nature of the softener molecule and the relative hydrophobicity of the fibre surface.

Fig: Schematic orientation of softeners on fibre surfaces. (a) Cationic
softener and (b) anionic softener at fibre surface. Non-ionic softener at
(c) hydro–phobic and (d) hydrophilic fibre surface.

Cationic softeners orient themselves with their positively charged ends toward the partially negatively charged fiber (zeta potential), creating a new surface of hydrophobic carbon chains that provide the characteristic excellent softening and lubricity seen with cationic softeners. Anionic softeners, on the other hand, orient themselves with their negatively charged ends repelled away from the negatively charged fibre surface. This leads to higher hydrophilicity, but less softening than with cationic softeners. The orientation of non-ionic softeners depends on the nature of the fiber surface, with the hydrophilic portion of the softener being attracted to hydrophilic surfaces and the hydrophobic portion being attracted to hydrophobic surfaces.

An Overview of Work Study in Textile Industry

Saturday, 16 November 2013

An Overview of Work Study in Textile Industry

Rahamat Ullah Joy
B.sc in Textile Engineering
Daffodil International University
Email: rahamat.tex@gamil.com
Phone: +8801614445257

Introduction
Productivity has now become an everyday watch word. It is crucial to the welfare of industrial firm as well as for the economic progress of the country. High productivity refers to doing the work in a shortest possible time with least expenditure on inputs without sacrificing quality and with minimum wastage of resources.

Work-study forms the basis for work system design. The purpose of work design is to identify the most effective means of achieving necessary functions. This work-study aims at improving the existing and proposed ways of doing work and establishing standard times for work performance.

Work-study is encompassed by two techniques, i.e., method study and work measurement.

“Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and Proposed ways of doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more Effective methods and reducing costs.”

“Work measurement is the application or techniques designed to establish the time for A qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level or performance.”

What is Work Study?
Work Study is the systematic examination of the methods of carrying out activities such as to improve the effective use of resources and to set up standards of performance for the activities carried out.

We can see through a Picture then we understand very smoothly

Components of Work Study:
Another definition of Work Study could be:

"A generic term for those techniques, particularly method study and work measurement, which are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts, and which lead systematically to to the investigation of all the factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being reviewed, in order to effect improvement.”

This has to do with Productivity Improvement, but also improvement of Quality and Safety.

Operations Management - Work Study:
Managing people within operations involves actual design decisions about jobs, methods, relationships between jobs and machines and systems of control and communication. Work design involves complex “people” relationships between operative staff, supervisors and specialists e.g. engineering managers and staff who commission new machines and maintain them. Other specialists may co-ordinate health and safety systems or monitor performance and plan maintenance .People are not mere extensions to machines or horsepower to be switched on and off. A worker’s performance may be better than a machine’s capability - yet a machine may outstrip the human being for many tasks.

People can be hurt/injured physically by operating environments or trapped socially and psychologically in them/by them. How operational systems are designed and the jobs and performance relationships within them are of great operational, economic and social importance. In this context then work study is

“A collection of techniques used to examine work - what is done and how it is done - so that there is systematic analysis of all the elements, factors, resources and relationships affecting the efficiency and effectiveness of the work being studied.”

Focusing point
Considerable diplomacy and sensitivity is needed by the industrial engineer or operations manager who becomes involved in work study (or business process improvement) investigations.

In the Path of F. W. Taylor:
Method study and work measurement are two principal activities of work study which originated in the work of F. W. Taylor . FW’s “scientific management” imperatives are:

Investigate the work situation and identify weaknesses - where and why is poor performance happening? The “scientific” title for this approach to management means placing emphasis on data gathering and rational analysis

Certain narrow assumptions about the objectivity of efficiency criteria.

The existence of direct, deterministic relationships between worker performance and incentive payments and

Consideration of the worker to some extent as a machine. Thus we can evaluate and introduce improvements in operating methods. This includes type of equipment, its use, layout of operations, supply and use of materials, materials handling, work organisation, effectiveness of planning procedures and so on. Productivity improvement is the aim.

We can select staff with characteristics that fit the job, train and reward them using payment schemes the offer particular economic incentive by linking payment to measured performance. Such propositions are commonly the stuff of managerial populists and “how-to” texts on human resource management.

Methods study Approach:
Is an analysis of ways of doing work? The mnemonic SREDIM (a common-sense heuristic or general problem solving strategy) represents the method study stages

Select the tasks to study
Record the facts about it
Examine these
Develop a new method
Install/implement it
Maintain it

Work Measurement:
Involves assessing the time a job should take to do. Similar steps are

Involved as to method study

Select the tasks
Record the facts
Analyze them
Calculate basic and standard times for the task
Agree the method and its related time

How many extra hours/people are needed? Why? What will the new method offer? Is it possible to change methods? What will be the costs/benefits?

Thus the techniques, assumptions and weaknesses of work study reflect important know-how for the operations manager generally - and not just those working in engineering or manufacturing environments. However the assumptions, difficulties and limitations of the claims must be understood.

Efficiency Indices
Using data on measured work, unmeasured work and idle time we can Attempt to derive effectiveness indices. Constable and New exemplify

Efficiency and effectiveness indices

A. efficiency
While performing measured work (ratio of standard/measured hours of Work produced and the actual time taken)
B. effectiveness

Which Includes?

Accounting for work done for which no measured time Exists. Such work is typically paid for by an agreed hourly/day rate i.e. there is no direct, measured relationship between pay and how much work is actually completed in that hour. Of course a supervisor may pass a judgment or state that the amount of work and its quality are inadequate.

Recognition of possible idle time caused e.g. by management not allocating any work, supplier/materials delays, machine breakdowns etc.

Advantages of Work Study :

It helps to achieve the smooth production flow with minimum interruptions.
It helps to reduce the cost of the product by eliminating waste and unnecessary operations.
Better worker-management relations.
Meets the delivery commitment.
Reduction in rejections and scrap and higher utilization of resources of the organization.
Helps to achieve better working conditions.
Better workplace layout.
Improves upon the existing process or methods and helps in standardization and simplification.
Helps to establish the standard time for an operation or job which has got application in manpower planning, production planning.
It’s solve the hazard of operator through the industrial engineer
And work study help to data entry option.

Conclusion:
In simple terms work study measures work and defines (some) performance standards. There are many uses for time estimates for tasks. Operations managers can guess or assume that a job is done in the correct time (whatever that is!) or they can be systematic and use time data gathered by a systematic technique which has reasonable accuracy. Whether or not the worker likes it - pushed hard in trying to complete a job with very tight measured work standards which don’t anticipate the knotty problem encountered with a particular task- is another matter. Work study/industrial engineers need time data to plan and evaluate production/transformation processes. Rewards systems need such data for performance related bonuses. Cost calculations need to incorporate operative and machine job times Costing systems reference work study data. Work study data contributes too

And finally
We need to remember always that performance inefficiency may arise from many reasons outside of worker control - a cumbersome planning system, a slow computer system with heavy overheads, lack of investment or uninformed, disorganized management. It is crass to assume that the problems will only be due to staff inefficiencies or inappropriate methods.

References:

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Stages of the New Product Development (NPD) Process

Tuesday, 26 November 2013

Wet Transfer Printing Method | Steps of Wet Transfer Printing Process

Saturday, 23 November 2013

Application Methods of Reactive Dyeing

Friday, 22 November 2013

Reactive groups